Flesh and Faith: The History and Lore of Cannibalism in Human Societies

Introduction

Cannibalism—the consumption of human flesh by humans—has long been one of the most profound taboos in human culture. At once horrifying and fascinating, it evokes visceral reactions of revulsion while also provoking questions about survival, belief, and morality. Yet throughout history, cannibalism has appeared in diverse forms: as a desperate act during famine, as a ritual practice embedded in religious systems, as a symbolic rite of spiritual communion, and as a subject of myth meant to deter transgression. Archaeological findings trace its presence deep into early human evolution, while ethnographic studies document its continued ritual role in certain societies into the modern era. Even today, echoes of cannibalism persist in criminal cases, in symbolic religious practices, and in folklore such as the terrifying legend of the Wendigo.

This essay explores the history and lore of cannibalism in human societies across seven broad dimensions: early evidence in human evolution, its roles in ancient civilizations, ritual practices in Oceania and the Americas, medicinal and magical uses in Europe and Africa, symbolic and religious cannibalism, its role in myth and deterrent narratives, and its survival into modern criminal contexts. By examining these varied forms, cannibalism can be understood not merely as an aberration, but as a recurring and meaningful—if unsettling—part of human culture.

Early Human Evidence

Archaeological records provide some of the earliest evidence of cannibalism among hominin species. The remains of Homo antecessor found in Gran Dolina cave in Atapuerca, Spain, dating to roughly 800,000 years ago, show cut marks and marrow extraction identical to animal butchery (Carbonell, 2010). This suggests systematic cannibalism, possibly for dietary needs or as part of inter-group conflict. Similarly, Neanderthal remains at sites such as El Sidrón in Spain and Moula-Guercy Cave in France reveal butchering and brain extraction, indicating that cannibalism occurred both as survival strategy and potentially as ritual practice (Defleur et al., 1999). Later evidence from Gough’s Cave in England, around 15,000 years ago, shows skulls deliberately modified into drinking cups, pointing toward ceremonial or ritualistic meanings (Bello et al., 2011).

Together, these findings suggest that cannibalism was not an anomalous behavior but a persistent element of early human adaptation and symbolic practice.

Cannibalism in Ancient Civilizations

Cannibalism’s symbolic and ritual dimensions are also evident in ancient civilizations. In Egypt, the Cannibal Hymn within the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2400 BCE) describes the pharaoh consuming gods and humans to absorb their power and ascend into the divine realm (Faulkner, 1969). While possibly metaphorical, this ritual language shows how cannibalism could symbolize domination and transformation.

In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs practiced sacrificial cannibalism on a massive scale. Victims offered to deities such as Huitzilopochtli were sometimes consumed in ritual feasts, understood as both honoring the gods and sustaining the cosmos (Harner, 1977). The Maya and Toltec also engaged in ritual cannibalism, though on a smaller scale, often tied to warfare or fertility rites (Houston & Stuart, 1996).

Chinese records from the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE) allude to ritual consumption of human flesh, though the extent is debated (Watson, 2007). Meanwhile, Greco-Roman writers often accused enemies such as the Celts of cannibalism, although these claims may reflect propaganda rather than historical fact (Tierney, 1960).

Cannibalism in Oceania and the Americas

In South America, cannibalism was often part of funerary rites rather than warfare. The Wari’ of Brazil practiced endocannibalism, consuming the flesh of deceased relatives to honor them and keep their spirit within the community (Conklin, 2001). Similarly, the Fore people of Papua New Guinea practiced funerary cannibalism into the 20th century, though this custom tragically facilitated the spread of the prion disease kuru (Lindenbaum, 1979).

In Oceania, cannibalism was tied to warfare and spirituality. The Fijians practiced it both as an act of religious offering and as a way to humiliate defeated enemies (Kaplan, 1995). Among the Māori of New Zealand, consuming slain enemies symbolized absorbing their mana, or spiritual power (Best, 1924). These practices highlight how cannibalism could serve as both sacred ritual and social domination.

Cannibalism in Africa and Europe

Across Central and West Africa, ritual cannibalism sometimes played a role in sorcery, healing, or spiritual warfare. Body parts were consumed in ceremonies believed to grant power or protection (Geschiere, 1997). However, colonial accounts often sensationalized these practices to justify conquest, complicating historical interpretation.

In Europe, cannibalism manifested in unexpected ways. From the 16th to 18th centuries, corpse medicine—known as “medical cannibalism”—was widespread. Human remains such as powdered mummy, blood, and bone were consumed as remedies. King Charles II of England famously ingested “the King’s Drops,” a tonic made from powdered human skull (Sugg, 2011). While framed as medicine, this was a clear form of ritualized cannibalism, albeit stripped of its association with savagery.

Symbolic Cannibalism and Religion

Symbolic cannibalism appears in religious practices where the act of eating human flesh is metaphorical. Christianity’s Eucharist is the most prominent example. In Catholic and Orthodox theology, the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ through transubstantiation, creating a spiritual form of cannibalism (Pagels, 1988). Early critics of Christianity accused the faith of literal cannibalism due to this sacrament, highlighting its unsettling symbolism.

Other traditions, such as Mithraism in the Roman Empire, involved sacred meals symbolizing divine communion (Beck, 2006). Shamanic traditions across Siberia, Africa, and the Amazon also contain symbolic cannibalism, where initiates undergo visions of consuming or being consumed as a path to transformation (Eliade, 1964). These practices illustrate that cannibalism’s symbolic meaning—communion, transformation, and power—has transcended its literal act.

Cannibalism in Myth and Lore: The Wendigo

While some traditions sacralized cannibalism, others demonized it. Among Algonquian-speaking peoples of North America, the Wendigo represented the horror of cannibalism. This monstrous figure, gaunt and insatiably hungry, was believed to arise when a human resorted to eating flesh during famine (Johnston, 1995). The Wendigo myth served both as a spiritual warning and a social deterrent, reinforcing taboos against cannibalism while embodying metaphors of greed and selfishness.

Reports of “Wendigo psychosis”—where individuals believed they were becoming cannibals—were documented by early anthropologists, though modern scholars argue this may reflect colonial misunderstandings of Indigenous traditions (Marano, 1982). Still, the Wendigo myth illustrates how cannibalism has been used not only in sacred ritual but also as a cultural warning against transgression.

Cannibalism in Modern Criminal Contexts

In modern times, cannibalism is extremely rare and almost exclusively criminal. A systematic review found cannibalistic homicides account for about 0.01% of murders in the United States between 1960 and 2018 (Bruschi et al., 2020). Perpetrators often frame their acts in religious or ritual terms, whether through occult beliefs or psychotic delusions of divine command (Schechter, 1990).

Cases in parts of Africa and the Caribbean sometimes involve ritual murders tied to sorcery, but these are prosecuted as crimes rather than recognized religious practices (Geschiere, 1997). While media portrayals often sensationalize “cannibal cults,” most modern cases are isolated aberrations rather than organized traditions.

Conclusion

Cannibalism has shaped human history in profound and paradoxical ways. From survival strategies among early humans to sacred rites in ancient civilizations, from funerary traditions in South America to symbolic rituals in Christianity, cannibalism has been both sacred and profane, condemned and revered. In myth, such as the Wendigo, it has served as a cultural deterrent, while in Europe, medical cannibalism shows that even those who denounced it could incorporate it into daily life. Today, cannibalism survives largely in criminal contexts, but its symbolic echoes remain embedded in religious and cultural traditions.

Far from being a marginal phenomenon, cannibalism reflects humanity’s deep struggle with mortality, hunger, spirituality, and social order. Its persistence across time and place suggests that the line between nourishment, reverence, and horror is far thinner than most societies would like to believe.

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